Reality TV Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Reality TV - Essay Example In recent decades, the media has covered the analysis that the reality shows almost around the world have brought an enormous popularity as well as profitability, implicating a promising growing trend of such phenomenon in practice (Holmes & Jermyn, 2004, 302 pp.). However, not all the reality shows are very successful in particular, though they bring the attention of mass with its significant increasing popularity as well as cultural prominence. On the other hand, this does not necessarily imply that they are good in societal context or that they ought to be aired. This paper aims at criticising the essentiality of regulatory bodies to effectively ensure the respect for human dignity of participants in reality TV show by providing empirical evidences. The significant part of the popularity achieved by such programmes is primarily due to the involvement of ordinary individuals within extraordinary framework. Reality television shows possess the potentiality to portray an ordinary individual into national celebrities in the sense of encouraging his or her outwardly in endowment as well as making them to participate in performance-based programmes such as Pop Idol, however, programmes like Survivor as well as Big Brother have the capacity to make their participants to accomplish some level of celebrity phenomenon. Some of the critics of reality television shows have argued with its description as a 'r... he potentiality to portray an ordinary individual into national celebrities in the sense of encouraging his or her outwardly in endowment as well as making them to participate in performance-based programmes such as Pop Idol, however, programmes like Survivor as well as Big Brother have the capacity to make their participants to accomplish some level of celebrity phenomenon. Some of the critics of reality television shows have argued with its description as a 'reality-based show' as they explain several reasons for it such as the inclusion of several programmes under single genre. Big Brothers and Survivor, the reality based competitive programmes, as well as living arrangement shows like The Real World, the regulatory bodies essentially design the layout of the show and govern the daily activities of the participants in order to formulate the environment based on which the competition rules out which in essence involves the psycho-drama consisting of challenges, events, behaviours, emotions and conflicts in a pre-defined scenario (Anderson 1995, p.36). Mark Burnett, the originator of Survivor, also elucidates and agrees with the statement of not deszcribing the reality show as 'reality show'. He emphasizes the reality show as being a 'good stories of unscripted dramatization' (online). The second criticism mainly stems from the idea that the reality sho w producers may become highly premeditated in their editing process that may vary from altering chronology and selective appearance of the events to portraying specific participants as heroes or villains in particular (Anderson 1994, p. 8-13). The third criticism may be encountered as the counterpart of the second criticism in which it has been noticed that the participants by themselves modify their behaviour and

Composition Of Amlodipine Besylate Tablets Biology Essay

Composition Of Amlodipine Besylate Tablets Biology Essay (28) Karalis et al in 2008 discussed the issues in the conference involved physiological factors affecting drug absorption, the role of pre-systemic effects on bioavailability (BA), the impact of variability in bioequivalence (BE) studies, and a final closing panel session on unresolved issues in BA/BE regulations. Several important aspects of drug absorption were highlighted. It was presented how the complexity of gastrointestinal (GI) physiology and the site dependent absorption can impact on drug BA. Similarly, the effects of food and formulation were also studied. The second session focused on integrating the complexities of GI into modeling the inter-individual variability of absorption and the prediction of first-pass metabolism from in-vitro data. The necessity to measure metabolites, the value of Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS), and the more recently proposed Biopharmaceutical Drug Disposition Classification System (BDDCS) were assessed as well. This session clo sed with presentations of pharmacokinetic software delegates. In the second day of the conference, the problem of high intra-subject variability in BE studies was analyzed. Study design considerations, the use of multiple-dose studies and the role of statistics in BE were also highlighted. Finally, the current thinking of regulatory authorities (EMEA and US-FDA) was presented. The conference closed with a last session on unresolved issues in the regulatory level. EXPERIMENTAL Tablets are the most popular dosage forms of Pharmaceutical product. A typical tablet formulation consists of the Active Pharmaceutical ingredient(s), fillersdisintigrant, lubricant and other inactive ingredients (e.g. binder, glidant and colors) a formulation scientist must conduct a thorough both to optimize a formulation so that it meets all specification and to ensure safety and efficacy. The specification for pharmaceutical tablets usually include appearance, weight, uniformity of contant, diameter, Thickness, friability, dissolution, disintegration, Hardness, Assay, Organolaptic character other product specific requirements. These specifications are established to ensure that the tablets will have sufficient mechanical strength to withstand packaging, shipping and handling and are physically and chemically stable to deliver the accurate amount of drug at the desired dissolution rate when consumed by the patient. Any changes in these characteristics may significantly affect the safety and efficacy of the product. FORMULATION DEVELOPMENT OF AMLODIPINE BESYLATE BY DIRECT COMPRESSION METHOD Direct compression is a preferred manufacturing process for pharmaceutical tablets, according to survey conducted by Shangraw and Demarest. In this study Amlodipine besylate was directly compressed by using three different formulation i.e. with different diluent,bibder,filler,disintigrant and lubricant.In this study we were not only study the biowaivers effect of different marketed brands and formulation of Amlodipine Besylate but also manufactured and developed three different formulation by reducind the cost and increased quality perspects. MATERIAL AND METHOD CHEMICALS. COMPOSITION OF AMLODIPINE BESYLATE TABLETS. FORMULATION NO.1 S.NO. Material Name Quanty per Tablet (mg) Percentage composition (%) Quantity for 100 tablets (gm) 1 Amlodipine Besylate 5 5 0.5 2 Avecil 102 47 47 4.7 3 Starch Pregelitinized 47.75 47.75 4.775 4 Magnesium stearate 0.25 0.25 0.025 Target compression weight is 100mg containing 5 mg active FORMULATION NO.2 S.NO. Material Name Quanty per Tablet (mg) Percentage composition (%) Quantity for 100 tablets (gm) 1 Amlodipine Besylate 5 5 0.5 2 Avecil 101 47 47 4.7 3 Avecil 102 47 47 4.7 4 Magnesium stearate 1 1 0.1 Target compression weight is 100mg containing 5 mg active FORMULATION NO.3 S.NO. Material Name Quanty per Tablet (mg) Percentage composition (%) Quantity for 100 tablets (gm) 1 Amlodipine Besylate 5 5 0.5 2 Avecil 102 49 49 4.9 3 Dicalcium Phosphate Anhydrous 44 44 4.4 4 Sodium Starch Glycolate 4 4 0.4 5 Magnesium stearate 1 1 0.1 Target compression weight is 100mg containing 5 mg active EQUIPMENTS Rotary press ( ZP19) Electronic Balance (Sartorious TE 214S) Mixer ( polyethylene bag ) Sieve # 20 METHOD Three new formulation of Amlodipine Besylate were developed using three directly compressible agents i.e. microcrystalline cellulose (Avecil 101 and 102), starch pregelatinized and Dibasic Calcium Phosphate in order to check the multi purpose excipients. First active and all excipients were weighed accurately using Sartorious TE 214S, The weighed materials were screened through 20 mesh size sieve and then mixing of powders was performed by geometric dilution method in polythene bag. First active was mixed with diluents by tumbling action and then one by one other ingredients of formulation were mixed together. All the ingredients were thoroughly mixed to ensure uniform distribution of all the ingredients throughout the formulation. Flow chart of manufacturing process Weighing of active and excipients Sieving y 20 mesh size Mixing of active and diluent Addition of other ingredients Addition of lubricant and mixing Tableting PHYSICAL TESTING OF TABLET Amlodipine Besylate tablets were evaluated for their physical and chemical properties by performing different pharmacopoeial test, i.e by official and unofficial tests including tablets weight variation, hardness, friability, disintegration, dissolution, Thickness, diameter and content uniformity and results were statistically analyzed and compared with marketed brands of Amlodipine Besylate named as test formulation # 1, test formulation # 2, test formulation # 3 TABLET THICKNESS AND DIAMETER The dimensional specifications of tablets are important for many reasons. The measurement of the thickness and the diameter of a tablet usually accomplished by the use of micrometer (Vernier) calipers. The value is initially employed as in process control during production. UNIFORMITY OF THICKNESS EQUIPMENTS Vernier caliper METHOD Tablet thickness is determined with a caliper or thickness gauge, which measures the thickness in millimeters. In this study, twenty tablets were taken and their thicknesses were determined using vernier caliper. Results were statistically analyzed using three sigma control chart. LIMITS A plus or minus 5% standard deviation may be allowed, depending on the size of the tablet.Out of twenty tablets only two tablets will be allowed to exceed the limit. UNIFORMITY OF DIAMETER OF TABLETS EQUIPMENT Vernier caliper METHOD Twenty tablets were taken and their diameters were determined using vernier caliper. . Results were statistically analyzed using three sigma control chart. LIMITS A deviation of  ±5% from the stated diameter is allowed except that for diameters exceeding 12.5mm the deviation allowed is  ±3%.Out of 20 tablets only 2 tablets will be allowed to exceed the limit. FRIABILITY TEST A certain weight of tablets ,are subjected to a well defined level of agitation in a fixed geometry,closed container for a specific time.They are then again reweighted.The measure of abrasion resistance or FRIABILITYis usually expressed as a percentage loss in weight. EQUIPMENT Electronic Balance (Sartorious TE 214S) Friabilator (Erweka Germany) METHOD Preweight samples of 20tablets were taken and subjected to the combined effect of shock abrasion by utilizing the plastic chamber which revolved at 25rpm for 4minutes, droped the tablet at a distance of 6 inches with each revolution. Then the tablets were removed, dedusted and reweighed. LIMITS Values of friability of 0.8 to 1.0% are frequently quoted as the upper level of acceptability for pharmaceutical product. Generally the test is run once. If the results are doubtful for if weight loss is greater than 1% repeats the test twice and determines the mean of the three tests. A maximum weight of 1% of the weight of the tablets to be tested is considered to be acceptable for most products. HARDNESS TEST This test is intended to determined under defined conditions,the resistance to crushing of tablets,measured by the forced needed to disturp them by crushing apparatus.Probably the most widely used technique is testing of crushing strength presisly defined as that compressional force which,when applied diametrically to a tablet,just fractures it. EQUIPMENT Hardness tester (Pharma test) METHOD Twenty tablets of every sample of brands and test formulation were taken and their hardness was determined using Pharma test hardness tester. In this type of tester load is applied at a constant rate by an electric motor. Results were statistically analyzed using three sigma control chart. LIMITS Hardness will be measured in kg.Out of twenty tablets; only two tablets are allowed to exceed the limit. DISINTIGRATION TEST FOR TABLETS Disintegration Test determines whether tablets or capsules disintegrate within the prescribed time when placed in the liquid medium in the experimental condition prescribed. For compressed uncoated tablets the testing fluid is usually water at 37  °C, but in some cases monographs direct that simulated gastric fluid TS be used. This test is provided to determine whether tablets or capsules disintegrate within the prescribed time when placed in a liquid medium under the experimental conditions presented below. For the purposes of this test, disintegration does not imply complete dissolution of the unit or even of its active constituent. Complete disintegration is defined as that State in which any residue of the unit, except fragments of insoluble coating or capsule shell, remaining on the screen of the test apparatus or adhering to the lower surface of the discs, if used, is a soft mass having no palpably firm core. Use apparatus A for tablets and capsules that are not greater than 18 mm long. For larger tablets or capsules use apparatus B. APPARATUSà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™ The apparatus consists of a basket-rack assembly, a 1 liter, low-form beaker, 149  ± 11 mm in height and having an inside diameter of 106  ± 9 mm for the immersion fluid, a thermostatic arrangement for heating the fluid between 35  °C and 39  °C, and a device for raising and lowering the basket in the immersion fluid at a constant frequency rate between 29 and 32 cycles per minute, through a distance of 55  ± 2 mm. The volume of the fluid in the vessel is such that at the highest point of the upward stroke the wire mesh remains at least 15 mm below the surface of the fluid, and descends to not less than 25 mm from the bottom of the vessel on the downward stroke. At no time should the top of the basket-rack assembly become submerged. The time required for the upward stroke is equal to the time required for the downward stroke, and the change in stroke direction is a smooth transition, rather than an abrupt reversal of motion. The basket-rack assembly moves vertically along i ts axis. There is no appreciable horizontal motion or movement of the axis from the vertical. BASKET-RACK ASSEMBLYà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™ The basket-rack assembly consists of 6 open-ended transparent tubes, each 77.5  ± 2.5 mm long and having an inside diameter of 21.85  ± 1.15 mm and a wall 1.9  ± 0.9 mm thick; the tubes are held in a vertical position by 2 plates, each 90  ± 2 mm in diameter and 6.75  ± 1.75 mm in thickness, with 6 holes, each 24  ± 2 mm in diameter, equidistant from the centre of the plate and equally spaced from one another. Attached to the under surface of the lower plate is a woven stainless steel wire cloth, which has a plain square weave with 2.0  ± 0.2 mm mesh apertures and with a wire diameter of 0.615  ± 0.045 mm. The parts of the apparatus are assembled and rigidly held by means of 3 bolts passing through the 2 plates. A suitable means is provided to suspend the basket-rack assembly from the raising and lowering device using a point on its axis. The design of the basket-rack assembly may be varied somewhat provided the specifications for the glass tubes and the screen mesh s ize are maintained. The basket-rack assembly conforms to the dimensions. DISCSà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™ The use of discs is permitted only where specified or allowed. Each tube is provided with a cylindrical disc 9.5  ± 0.15 mm thick and 20.7  ± 0.15 mm in diameter. The disc is made of a suitable, transparent plastic material having a specific gravity of 1.18-1.20. 5 parallel 2  ± 0.1 mm holes extend between the ends of the cylinder. One of the holes is centered on the cylindrical axis. The other holes are centered 6  ± 0.2 mm from the axis on imaginary lines perpendicular to the axis and parallel to each other. 4 identical trapezoidal-shaped planes are cut into the wall of the cylinder, nearly perpendicular to the ends of the cylinder. The trapezoidal shape is symmetrical; its parallel sides coincide with the ends of the cylinder and are parallel to an imaginary line connecting the centres of 2 adjacent holes 6 mm from the cylindrical axis. The parallel side of the trapezoid on the bottom of the cylinder has a length of 1.6  ± 0.1 mm and its bottom edge s lie at a depth of 1.6  ± 0.1 mm from the cylinders circumference. The parallel side of the trapezoid on the top of the cylinder has a length of 9.4  ± 0.2 mm and its centre lies at a depth of 2.6  ± 0.1 mm from the cylinders circumference. All surfaces of the disc are smooth. If the use of discs is specified, add a disc to each tube and operate the apparatus as directed under Procedure. The discs conform to the dimensions. The use of automatic detection employing modified discs is permitted where the use of discs is specified or allowed. Such discs must comply with the requirements of density and dimension. PROCEDUREà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™ Place 1 dosage unit in each of the 6 tubes of the basket and, if prescribed, add a disc. Operate the apparatus using the specified medium, maintained at 37  ± 2  °C, as the immersion fluid. At the end of the specified time, lift the basket from the fluid and observe the dosage units: all of the dosage units have disintegrated completely. If 1 or 2 dosage units fail to disintegrate, repeat the test on 12 additional dosage units. The requirements of the test are met if not less than 16 of the 18 dosage units tested have disintegrated. EQUIPMENT Disintegrating Apparatus (Pharma Test) METHODà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™ Test 6 tablets or capsules either by using 2 basket-rack assemblies in parallel or by repeating the procedure. In each of the 3 tubes, place 1 tablet or capsule and, if prescribed, add a disc; suspend the assembly in the beaker containing the specified liquid. Operate the apparatus for the prescribed period, withdraw the assembly and examine the state of the tablets or capsules. To pass the test, all 6 of the tablets or capsules must have disintegrated. LIMITS All tablets must disintegrate completely, if one or two tablets fails to disintegrate, the test is to be repeated using 12 tablets. Out of the 18 tablets then tested,16 must have disintegrated within the given period of time .The condition of the test are varied somewhat for coated tablets,buccal tablets and sublingual tablets. Disintegration time are included in the individual tablet monograph. For most uncoated tablets the period is less than 15 minutes although the time for some uncoated tablets varied greatly from this. WEIGHT VARIATION Most pharmacopoeias include a simple weight test on a specified number of tablet(N) which are weight individually and the arithmetic mean weight calculated.Limitations on the number of test tablets that may lie outside certain limits are than specified.However,in the USP the results of the assay are used to convert these weights into active ingredients content. EQUIPMENTS Electronic Balance (Sartorious TE 214S) METHOD Twenty tablets of every samples were taken randomly and eight individually, and then average weight was determined. LIMITS According to USP not more than two of the tablets must not differ by more than the percentage listed below, no tablet differs by more than double that percentage. Tablets that are coated are exempt from these requirements but most conform to the test for content uniformity if it is applicable. The USP has provided tolerance for the average weight of uncoated compressed tablets. These are applicable when the tablets contain 50mg or more of the drug substances or when the matter comprises 50% or more, by weight, of the dosage form. Average Weight %age Difference 130mg or less 10 â‚ ¬Ã‚ ¾130mg to 324 mg 7.5 More than 324mg 5 ASSAY: AMLODIPINE BESYLATE REAGENTS 0.1N Sodium Hydroxide in Methanol Dimethyl formamide (DMF) STANDARD SOLUTION 50mcg/ml of Amlodipine Besylate in DMF. SAMPLESOLUTION Extract appropriate quantity of powdered sample with DMF to get concentration of 50mcg/ml. PROEDURE To 2ml each of sample and standard solution, add 0.2ml of Sodium hydroxide solution and dilute to 10ml with DMF and measure the absorption of orange chromatogen at 450nm against reagent blank. Calculate the contents of amlodipine by comparison.(237) AMLODIPINE BESYLATE The tablets comply with the requirment stated under tablet and with the following requirment. CONTENT OF AMLODIPINE BESYLATE C20H25ClN2O5,C6H6O3S 97.0% to 102.0% (Anhydrous substance) CHEMICALS Sodium hydroxide pellets Methanol N-N Dimethyl Formamide EQUIPMENT AND GLASS WARES Electronic Balance (Sartorious TE 214S) UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Double beam Shimadzu 1650PC ) Volumetric Flask (100ml,Pyrex England) Volumetric Flask (10ml,Pyrex England) Pipettes (10ml Pyrex England) Pipettes (2ml Pyrex England) Conical Flasks (Pyrex England) Beaker (Pyrex England) Filter paper (Whatman #42) METHOD Weigh and powder 20tablets of amlodipine Besylate 5mg (DC). Take quantity of the powder containing 5mg of amlodipine Besylate (average weight) in a 100ml volumetric flask and add N-N Dimethyl Formamide into it and mix thoroughly with the help of magnetic stirrer and then make up the volume up to 100ml.Then take 2ml from first dilution into a 10ml volumetric flask, add 0.2l of 0.1N Sodium hydroxide solution in 10ml volumetric flask then make up volume with N-N Dimethyl Formamide.Then take the absorbance at 450nm on spectrophotometer and calculate the content of amlodipine Besylate. CALCULATION (AMLODIPINE BESYLATE mgtablet) % ASSAY = Abs of sp X__ 100 Abs of STD UNIFORMITY OF CONTENT The test for uniformity of content of single-dose preparations is based on the assay of the individual contents of active substance(s) of a number of single-dose units to determine whether the individual contents are within limits set with reference to the average content of the sample. Tablets containing highly potent medicaments present in milligram or microgram does may be subject to a large inter tablet variation. This may be due to failure to achieve a homogenous mix of active ingredient and exciient during manufacture. The test is not required for multivitamin and trace-element preparations and in other justified and authorized circumstances. Methodà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™ Using a suitable analytical method determines the individual contents of active substance(s) of 10 dosage units taken at random. Apply the criteria of test A, test B or test C as specified in the monograph for the dosage form in question. Test A Tablets, powders for parenteral use, ophthalmic inserts, suspensions for injection Test B Capsules, powders other than for parenteral use, granules, suppositories, pessaries à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™ Test C Transdermal patches Test A Tablets, powders for parenteral use, ophthalmic inserts, suspensions for injectionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™ The preparation complies with the test if each individual content is between 85 per cent and 115 per cent of the average content. The preparation fails to comply with the test if more than one individual content is outside these limits or if one individual content is outside the limits of 75 percent to 125 percent of the average content. If one individual content is outside the limits of 85 percent to 115 percent but within the limits of 75 percent to 125 percent, determine the individual contents of another 20 dosage units taken at random. The preparation complies with the test if not more than one of the individual contents of the 30 units is outside 85 percent to 115 percent of the average content and none is outside the limits of 75 percent to 125 per cent of the average content. CONTENT UNIFORMITY C.U = Abs of Sample X wt of std X 100 X 100 Abs of STD X 100 X LC * LC =Label claim DISSOLUTION This test is provided to determine compliance with the dissolution requirements for solid dosage forms administered orally. Apparatus 1 (Basket apparatus)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™ the assembly consists of the following: a vessel, which may be covered, made of glass or other inert, transparent material a motor; a drive shaft; and a cylindrical basket (stirring element). The vessel is partially immersed in a suitable water-bath of any convenient size or heated by a suitable device such as a heating jacket. The water-bath or heating device permits maintaining the temperature inside the vessel at 37  ± 0.5  °C during the test and keeping the dissolution medium in constant, smooth motion. No part of the assembly, including the environment in which the assembly is placed, contributes significant motion, agitation, or vibration beyond that due to the smoothly rotating stirring element. Apparatus that permits observation of the preparation and stirring element during the test is preferable. The vessel is cylindrical, with a hemispherical bottom and a capacity of 1 litre. Its height is 160-210 mm and its inside diamete r is 98-106 mm. Its sides are flanged at the top. A fitted cover may be used to retard evaporation.2 The shaft is positioned so that its axis is not more than 2 mm at any point from the vertical axis of the vessel and rotates smoothly and without significant wobble that could affect the results. A speed-regulating device is used that allows the shaft rotation speed to be selected and maintained at a specified rate, within  ± 4 per cent. Shaft and basket components of the stirring element are fabricated of stainless steel, type 316 or equivalent, to the specifications shown in Figure 2.9.3.-1. A basket having a gold coating of about 2.5  µm (0.0001 inch) thick may be used. The dosage unit is placed in a dry basket at the beginning of each test. The distance between the inside bottom of the vessel and the bottom of the basket is maintained at 25  ± 2 mm during the test. Apparatus 2 (Paddle apparatus)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™ Use the assembly from Apparatus 1, except that a paddle formed from a blade and a shaft is used as the stirring element. The shaft is positioned so that its axis is not more than 2 mm from the vertical axis of the vessel, at any point, and rotates smoothly without significant wobble that could affect the results. The vertical center line of the blade passes through the axis of the shaft so that the bottom of the blade is flush with the bottom of the shaft. The paddle conforms to the specifications shown in Figure 2.9.3.-2. The distance of 25  ± 2 mm between the bottom of the blade and the inside bottom of the vessel is maintained during the test. The metallic or suitably inert, rigid blade and shaft comprise a single entity. A suitable two-part detachable design may be used provided the assembly remains firmly engaged during the test. The paddle blade and shaft may be coated with a suitable coating so as to make them inert. The dosage unit is allowed to sink to the bottom of the vessel before rotation of the blade is started. A small, loose piece of non-reactive material, such as not more than a few turns of wire helix, may be attached to dosage units that would otherwise float. An alternative sinker device is shown in Figure 2.9.3.-3. Other validated sinker devices may be used. DISSOLUTION MEDIUMà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™ 1.2 pH BUFFER DISSOLUTION MEDIA REAGENTS USED Htdrochloric Acid (Merck grade) Distilled and deionized water PREPARATION 0.1N HCl was used as 1.2pH buffer media. 4.5 pH BUFFER DISSOLUTION MEDIA REAGENTS USED Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (Merck,Germany) Distilled and deionized water PREPARATION 6.8gm of Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate in1000ml DI water and adjust pH with Phosphoric acid. 6.8 pH BUFFER DISSOLUTION MEDIA REAGENTS USED 0.2M Potassium Dihydrogen hosphate 0.1M Sodium hydroxide Distilled and deionized water PREPARATION 0.2M KH2PO4 13.61gm of Potassium Dihydrogen hosphate in 500ml DI water. 0.1MNaOH 4gm in 500ml DI water. 6.8pH Buffer 250ml of 0.2M KH2PO4 and 112ml of 0.1MNaOH to make 1000ml with DI water. CALCULATION % age drug release = Abs of sp X100 Abs of STD SAMPLING SCHEDULE Sample were drawn at 5min then After 10min After 15min After 20min After 30min After 45min After 60min After 120min EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS Usual experimental conditions are e.g.: Apparatus: paddle/basket â‚ ¬Ã‚  Volume of dissolution medium: 900 ml â‚ ¬Ã‚  Temperature of the dissolution medium: 37  °C ±1 °C â‚ ¬Ã‚  Agitation: paddle apparatus usually 50 rpm, basket apparatus usually 100 rpm â‚ ¬Ã‚  Sampling schedule: e.g.5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, and 120 min â‚ ¬Ã‚  Buffer: pH 1.2 (0.1 N HCl or SGF without enzymes), pH 4.5, and pH 6.8 (or SIF withoutenzymes); (pH should be ensured throughout the experiment; Ph.Eur. buffers recommended) CHEMICALS Buffer 1.2 pH (0.1N HCl) Buffer 4.5 pH Buffer 6.8 pH EQUIPMENT AND GLASS WARES Dissolution paddle apparatus Distillation plant Electronic Balance (Sartorious TE 214S) UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Double beam Shimadzu 1650PC ) Volumetric Flask (100ml,Pyrex England) Pipettes (10ml Pyrex England) Pipettes graduated(2ml Pyrex England) Conical Flasks (Pyrex England) Beaker (Pyrex England) Filter paper (Whatman #42) PREPARATION OF STANDERD Accurately weight the standard and poured it into 100ml volumetric flask. The volume was made with the respective buffer and mixed,the stock solution was obtained. Then pippet out 1.1ml from the stock solution into another volumetric flask again made the volume with the respective buffer solution .Mixed it properly by shaking that was the first dilution and the required strength of standard was achieved to analyse. PREPARATION OF SAMPLE Placed the tablets of each brand into the vessel of paddle dissolutionhaving 900ml of resoective dissolution media. Switch on the apparatus and collect the sample according to the respective sampling interval that is 5min, 10min, 15min, 20min, 30min, 45min, 60min, and 120min. Every time the withdrawn media was replaced by the freh media.

The Do This, Get That Guide On Writing Dissertation Service

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The Cuban Missile Crisis A Detrimental Event - 1300 Words

John F. Kennedy said at the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963 that, â€Å"It is insane that two men, sitting on opposite sides of the world, should be able to decide to bring an end to civilization.† (Kennedy, 1963). The Cuban missile crisis was a detrimental event in the course of history. On October 22nd, 1962, John F. Kennedy gave his Cuban missile crisis oval office address. Kennedy gave this speech to inform Americans about the nuclear missile sites that the Soviet Union established in the island of Cuba. (Kennedy, President Kennedy s Cuban Missile Crisis Oval Office Address, 1962) I chose this speech because did I not only find it very interesting, but it described very well the events that were happening at the time. In addition, the way that Kennedy informed the public and presented the speech was great in getting their attention and presenting the facts. Kennedy’s speech was televised and radio transmitted in order to better reach the general public. My father, having lived in Cuba during the Cold war and the Cuban missile crisis, has told me many stories about how life was like in the country and things that were going on. However, there was only so much that he could remember and was able to tell me. Due to this I decided to choose this speech in order to learn more about the situation in which my father grew up in and how this affected not only the later years in his life but also the ones of the other people in both Cuba and the United States. I alsoShow MoreRelatedCuban Missile Crisis : The Height Of The Cuban War1307 Words   |  6 PagesCuban Missile Crisis At the height of the Cuban War, the United States and the Soviet Union risked nuclear confrontation in an event known as the Cuban missile crisis. The Event was the closest the two countries came to a nuclear war. Even though the confrontation lasted a span of 13 days the crisis is considered one of the most fascinating events in American history due to the fact the war could have led to the destruction of the world. â€Å"When Fidel Castro’s revolutionary July 26 Movement assumedRead MoreCuban Missle Crisis and the Realist Perspective Essay1172 Words   |  5 PagesThe Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 brought the world closer than it had ever been to nuclear war. This makes the crisis one of the most essential events in international affairs history, demonstrating a great example of the realist perspectives and other important aspects of international relations. Primarily, the origins of the Cuban Missile Crisis can be readily attributed to the realist perspective. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy launched the Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba, which was a thwartedRead MoreJohn F. Kennedy: An Influential Person Essay1335 Words   |  6 Pagesinternational relations at Harvard University. In 1961 Kennedy served as President until his assassination in 1963. John F. Kennedy influenced and touched the lives of people everywhere through his efforts with the Apollo 11 space mission, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the founding of the Peace Corps. Kennedy was influenced by his previous accomplishments, world conditions, and his brother’s untimely death. Before John F. Kennedy’s accomplishments he was a war hero. He won the Navy and Marine CorpsRead MoreCuba s Current Gross National Income Per Person Of $ 5890 ( Talley )1433 Words   |  6 PagesJason Lee Captain Czak History 300 21 October 2016 Cuba Cuba’s current gross national income per person of $5,890 (Talley), enormous debt, and other poor economic conditions can be explained by events tracing back post-World War II in 1945. The island of Cuba was inhabited by different Mesoamerican cultures but introduced to European cultures in 1492 with the arrival of Christopher Columbus. Spain began to colonize Cuba among other Caribbean islands in the 16th century and utilized the island asRead MoreThe Soviet Union During The Cuban Missile Crisis1978 Words   |  8 PagesAccount for the disharmony between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cuban missile crisis. The occurrence of the Cuban missile crisis remains the closest the world has ever come to nuclear war. The placement of Soviet nuclear weaponry on the island of Cuba in October 1962, sparked thirteen days in which the Cold war grew increasingly hotter as tensions between the two superpowers escalated. However, despite marking a turning point in US-Soviet relations it could be argued that OperationRead MoreCuba1197 Words   |  5 Pages(Discuss its culture) The island is located only 90 miles from Florida and is alligator-shaped. Its the biggest island in the Caribbean. The total population is 11,061.886. Its official language is Spanish, and 95% Cubans are Roman Catholic. The major ethnic groups include mulattos, which consist of 51% of the population. The remaining groups include 37% of white or European decent, 11% black, and 1% Chinese (Aguirrie, 2007). In 1492, Christopher Columbus discoveredRead MoreBay of Pigs1627 Words   |  7 Pagesaffect on how the U.S. conducts intelligence in today’s world. On April 19, 1961, the United States was ready to be a part of a missile attack. The mission became a complete failure and many people were killed during this time. President Kennedy had withdrawn his order for land aerial cover a week before the bombing was to occur. On New Year’s Day, 1959, Cuban Rebel forces, led by Fidel Castro, overthrew the existing government led by Fulgencio Batista. Castro immediately reformed Cuba’sRead MoreSoviet Union And The Cold War1660 Words   |  7 Pageseven if that meant â€Å"doing the wrong things for the right reasons.† A final military conflict, but by no means the least important, was the Cuban Missile Crisis. In October of 1962, tensions reached a breaking point in Cuba, so much so that nuclear armageddon was narrowly averted. Going back a few years, Nikita Khrushchev, Russia’s premier at the time, and Cuban dictator Fidel Castro were in an agreement that was awfully suspicious to the U.S.. Both of these anti-American nations being so close inRead MoreThe Bay of Pigs Essay1441 Words   |  6 Pagesinside Cuba†¦ The basic issue in Cuba is not one between the United States and Cuba. It is between the Cubans themselves.† These words were spoken by President Joh n F. Kennedy at a press conference on April 12, 1961, just five days before the Bay of Pigs invasion took place. Little did the American public know that in five short days, the United States would support an attempted invasion on the Cuban shore—unsuccessfully. The $46 million project would fail miserably, embarrassing America and increasingRead MorePolicemen Of The World Thesis And Outline Final 2 2307 Words   |  10 PagesPolicemen of the World Thesis and Outline Stephanie Clay Strayer University 24 May 2014 Introduction Over the last seventy years, the U.S. Military has developed into one of the main tools used by our International Partners to manage complex crisis that pose a serious threat to international peace and security past the United States borders. The number of military personnel that are being deployed to investigate, assist when peacekeeping is greatly needed has grown in size and within the last

Essay on The Case for Euthanasia - 2338 Words

In order to provide a framework for my thesis statement on the morality of euthanasia, it is first necessary to define what euthanasia is and the different types of euthanasia. The term Euthanasia originates from the Greek term â€Å"eu†, meaning happy or good and â€Å"thanatos†, which means death, so the literal definition of the word Euthanasia can be translated to mean â€Å"good or happy death†. The different types of Euthanasia are active or passive euthanasia and voluntary or involuntary euthanasia. Passive Euthanasia generally refers to the ending of a persons life by removing the person from a life-sustaining machine, such as a respirator. This form of euthanasia is endorsed by the American Medical Association and is less controversial than†¦show more content†¦I believe that active euthanasia is in and of itself a moral act when practiced under a framework of strict guidelines and laws used to make the determination on whether euthanasia is warranted. I believe the decision process used to determine whether or not to perform euthanasia must be accomplished on a case by case basis depending on a number of factors such as the patients overall medical condition, prognosis for recovery, ability to live without the aid of life supporting machines and the patients desires. Active euthanasia is currently only legalized in Oregon and Washington in the United States and in the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg in Europe. One of the ethical norms most often cited when discussing morality surrounding euthanasia is an individuals right to autonomy. â€Å"A person organizes his or her own private life so that the government, doctors and nurses cannot counteract what a euthanasia requester considers as the individual realization of his or her autonomous choice†( Quaghebeur, Dierckx de Casterlà © Gastmans, 2009). Arguments for and against euthanasia are made on the basis of autonomy. Quaghebeur et al., go on to state doctors must respect an individuals right to autonomy, even if they do not agree with or feel qualified to carry out the request for euthanasia (2009). On the other hand, critics of euthanasia based on autonomous norms make the point that euthanasia carries in part, too little respect for the lives ofShow MoreRelatedThe Case Against Euthanasia913 Words   |  4 Pages(Kirkey 2). Euthanasia is defined as assisting a terminally ill patient with dying early. In many countries the legalization of this practice is being debated in many countries. All doctors against assisted suicide, including the 44 percent in Canada, are on the right side of the argument. Euthanasia should not be legalized because it is unnatural, it violates the Hippocratic Oath, and laws are to extensive. Protecting life is the ethical view of society today, and legalizing euthanasia offsets thatRead MoreEssay on Utilitarianism and the Case for Euthanasia1353 Words   |  6 PagesUnitarianism and the Case for Euthanasia One of greatest moral issues facing society today is that of freedom. Freedom is a principle that this country was founded on at the start of its inception. Freedom is still a cause that requires our attention. The great debate on simple liberties such as the right to decide what happens to one’s body is still an issue that society has failed to resolve. It is a moral quandary that will continue to be discussed and a deliberated on as long as humankind areRead MoreEuthanasia: The Case of Susan Wolfs Father1150 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction For a quite a while, Euthanasia and assisted suicide have been a topic of debate. The concern stretches from the legal, moral, religious and emotional basis. The query at hand is what is the appropriate response to assisted suicide? As opposed to Wolfs hastened response of No. It is widely accepted that there are varied reasons for allowing Physician-assisted suicide. However, Euthanasia is not as widely permitted. Reason to this is that physician assisted suicide is not like toRead More Euthanasia: The Strange Case of Dr. Kevorkian Essay664 Words   |  3 PagesEuthanasia: The Strange Case of Dr. Kevorkian Physicians face an ethical dilemma when confronting their patients who are suffering. Many have to choose between abiding by the law or ignoring the law and acting on their own beliefs by assisting in a patient’s suicide. Dr. Jack Kevorkian is certainly one doctor who has taken the illegal route in assisting in many of his patients suicides. In â€Å"Killer Doc,† William F. Buckley provides a brief overview of the case and informs his audience ofRead MoreEssay about The Terri Schiavo Case and Euthanasia1505 Words   |  7 Pagesdamage was due to a lack of oxygen. For years, Terri had an ongoing battle with bulimia, which most likely resulted in the incident. Police reports showed no signs of foul play. In 1992, Michael Schiavo was awarded one million dollars in a malpractice case against one of Terri’s physicians. Michael later claimed that Terri’s parents, the Schindlers, demanded that he share the money with him. This caused a falling out between the two parties. The Schindlers filed a motion to remove Terri from Michael’sRead MoreThe Case Of Evan Motts Assisting His Wife s Euthanasia Essay1644 Words   |  7 PagesI am going to discuss in this essay the case of Evan Motts assisting his wife s euthanasia. I will cover the ethical issues regarding this topic including whether or not Evan should be punished. I will look at the theories of Kantian Ethics and Utilitarianism to justify whether or not Evan s actions were morally right. An Auckland man is facing a charge that carries a maximum penalty of 14 years after assisting his terminally ill wife to commit suicide. Evan Mott researched suicide methods andRead MoreEuthanasia Is An Action With A Medical Profession1525 Words   |  7 PagesEuthanasia is an action with a medical profession’s help to finish a patient’s life with the patient’s requirement (D, np). In many people’s mind, euthanasia gives them a picture of patients struggling miserably at the edge of death (E, np). It is a controversial topic through centuries. A lot of people support it because they consider it is a useful treatment to those patients suffering from physically and mentally. Meanwhile, same amount of people try to find negative impacts of it to againstRead MoreEuthanasi Euthanasia And Euthanasia1515 Words   |  7 Pagesetymology of the word ‘euthanasia’ originates from the Greek language which has a literal meaning of â€Å"good death†. Other names for euthanasia are ‘assisted suicide’ and ‘mercy killing’. Euthanasia is done when the person is suffering from a terminal illness such as cancer, and then steps are taken to end the person’s life so that they no longer have to suffer. [Helga Kuhse. July 1992. Bioethics News. The World Federation of Right to Die Societies. http://www.worldrtd.net/euthanasia-fact-sheet. AccessedRead MoreThe Moral Permissibility of Legalizing Active Euthanasia Essay1442 Words   |  6 PagesPermissibility of Legalizing Active Euthanasia To date, in the united States of America, active euthanasia has been seen as unacceptable in legal terms. However, the issue is not so clear in moral terms among the public, and especially among the medical community. In fact, nearly half of the doctors in the United States say that they would prescribe active euthanasia under certain circumstances. The law that prohibits active euthanasia restricts many people fromRead MoreEuthanasia And The Current Legal Position Of Euthanasia1555 Words   |  7 Pagesterm â€Å"euthanasia† is derived from Greek, and means â€Å"Good death.† It is a broad term for mercy killing, which is a plea to euthanasia. It represents a serious socio-legal debate. People do not always die well. Some afflictions cause people to suffer extreme physical pain in their last days, and euthanasia may seem a compassionate way to end the pain. The case of Karen Ann Quinlan set a precedent for patient’s right to refuse unwanted medical treatment. However, the credit of bringing euthanasia to

Chapter 14 Outline Ap World History. Free Essays

Outline Introduction: Every year or al least once in their life, the Muslims must travel to Mecca. This is a holy pilgrim that has been a tradition for the Muslims since Muhammad made the trip. At the beginning the pilgrims to Mecca were made by small amounts of people. We will write a custom essay sample on Chapter 14 Outline Ap World History. or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, by the ninth century, thousands of people traveled to Mecca in the 9th lunar month. All these people survived on food and water provided by the government. The Muslim government made a great effort to keep the roads and the cities clean and ready for the travelers. The hajj was not only solemn observance, but it was also an occasion for joy and celebration. The word Islam means â€Å"Submission,† which means obedience to the rule of Allah. If somebody accepts the Islamic faith it means that he/she is a Muslim. Even though this belief started with one man, by the end of the eighth century Islam stood alongside the Byzantine Empire. A Prophet and his World: Islam appeared in the Arabian Peninsula, and this religion reflected the cultural conditions of it’s homeland. Living in Arabia has always been hard because of the bad agriculture and the harsh climates. However people have been able to survive for a long time and they built a strong empire that was based upon family and submission. Arabia figured out the trading opportunities and took advantage of them. Arabia became an important trading center for India china and the Mediterranean. Plus they started receiving commodities. With the awake of classical empires, trade routes became insecure. Merchants abandoned the overland routes and they started using sea routes that passed through the Arabian Peninsula. This greatly influenced the economy of the city of Mecca. Muhammad and His Message: The prophet Muhammad was son of nomadic Bedouin herders and merchants. He was born in 570 C. E. and he was son of an honorable merchant family. He had an education, and they cared for him. However, when he was young he worked for a wealthy widow that later became his wife. He got some power in the Mecca society, but he didn’t get a high position. By the age 30 Muhammad had established himself as a merchant and he lived a comfortable life. He lived and knew about many other different religions and he knew the cultures of other peoples. According to the stories Muhammad received some messages from the Angel Gabriel which told him to convert his family and the world and to give them the message of god. Muhammad presented oral lessons that he passed to his students and the people. However when he dies, his students compiled his teachings in a book called the Quran. Most important after the Quran itself are traditions known as hadith, which include sayings attributed to Muhammad. Muhammad’s Migration to Medina: He first began for converting his family and then the community. Muhammad became popular and that brought him problems with the ruling elites of Mecca. Muhammad insisted that Allah was the only god and that there shouldn’t be any other deities to which we pray. The elite also saw him a treat because he said that Allah was going to punish greed. Because of all the danger in Mecca, Muhammad had to fled. He fled and joined a group of his followers in Yathrib, a rival trading city. Muslims called their new city Medina which also means the city of the prophet. In Medina he organized his followers into a community and he provides it with laws and a social code. He looked after the economic welfare of his community; he did this by trading or by launching expedition. Muhammad started to call himself the final prophet because he was going to at last reveal the message of god to the people. He teach that the Christian god and all the other major gods were the same. All of them were Allah and he also accepted the Jewish and Christian prophets. The Establishment of Islam in Arabia: Even thought they succeeded in Medina, Muhammad and his followers planned on returning to Mecca. In 630 he and his followers attacked Mecca and they conquered the city. They forced the rich to take Allah as their main god and they imposed a government dedicated to Allah. They also destroyed the shrines of other deities and they built mosques. In 632 Muhammad made the first pilgrimage to the Ka’ba. The foundations of Islamic faith as elaborated by Muhammad consist of obligations known as the Five Pillars. Added to the Five Pillars the Islamic people must follow the holy law known as the sharia. Through the Sharia, Islam became more than a religious doctrine. It became a way of life that people must strictly follow. Expansion of Islam: After Muhammad’s dead the religion faced a period of instability because he left no predecessor. Some people that had barely been conquered, broke from Islam, took back their independence and they became free again. However, within a short time, the Islamic community built a strong army that expanded its power and conquered many lands that converted into Islamic. These conquests lead the foundation of the rapid growth of Islamic society. The Early Caliphs and the Umayyad Dynasty: Since Muhammad said that he was the last prophet when he died, there could not be another prophet to lead the Islamic society. However, they decided to chose Abu Bakr as deputy. He was the closest of Muhammad’s friends and he was one of the most devoted disciples that he had. He was a religious leader, but he was also the Military commander. During the century after Muhammad’s dead they expanded beyond the boundaries of Arabia, carrying with them their religion and their authority. Durig this period of time they conquered Persia and Africa. Because of this rapid expansion, the government had problems with governing and administration. It was just too many people to control. Disagreements over the succession lead to the emergence of the Shia sect, which wanted Ali and his successors to caliphs. The Shia survived because they created different rituals and they appointed different holydays. The Shia Muslims also made changes in the Quran in order to support the party’s views. The Abbasid Dynasty: Rebellion in Persia brought the Umayyad dynasty to an end. The chief leader of the rebellion was Abu, he was a descendant of Muhammad’s uncle. Even though he was a Sunni Muslim, he allied himself with other Muslims in order to convert people from the Mediterranean. The Umayyad didn’t want to surrender to the Abu. One day Abu invited the rich, influential men to a banquet to make peace. However, during the banquet they were arrested and murdered. After they were killed Abu founded the Abbasid dynasty. This dynasty was more cosmopolitan than the previous dynasty. Instead of conquering new lands, the Abbasids largely contented themselves with administering the empire they inherited. The high point of the Abbasid dynasty came during the reign of Harun. This king provided with liberal support for artists and writer, and he distributed money and wealth to the poor people. After the death of the emperor, the Abbasid Empire declined. This was due to the conflicts of succession. At the end the Mongols extinguished the already weakened empire in 1258. Economy and Society of the Early Islamic World: As in other agricultural societies the farmers worked in the land while the merchants stayed at the city and feed themselves with the food that the farmers produced. The creation of empires had dramatic implications and results. For instance, the Abbasid Empire created a zone of trade, exchange of ideas, and a communicating route. New Crops, Agricultural Experimentation, and Urban Growth: As the soldiers, merchants, administrators and the population traveled to other parts of the world, they encounter different animals, plants and cultures. Then they brought those ideas and teach them to the people of their empire. The introduction of new crops to the west had many positive effects for the economy. New food crops led to a richer and more varied diet. They also increased quantities of food and some plants, such as cotton, were used to make a profit. Travel and communication in the dar al-Islam also encouraged experimentation with agricultural methods. The cultivators copied systems of irrigation and techniques that would help them produce more food. The increase of agricultural production contributed to the rapid growth of the empire. Paper manufacture appeared in the Islamic cities during the Abbasid era. Chinese people made paper since the first century B. C. however with the diffusion, the paper techniques spread to Islamic world around 751 B. C. The Formation of a Hemispheric trading Zone: From its earliest days Islamic society drew much of its prosperity from commerce. Muhammad was a merchant, and he held merchants in high stem. According to early accounts of his life Muhammad said that merchants would stand alongside martyrs to the faith on the Day of Judgment. By the time of the Abbasid Empire, trade networks linked all the regions of the Islamic world and joined it to a larger hemispheric economy. Arab and Persian mariner borrowed the compass from its Chinese inventors and used it to guide them on the high seas. From Southeast Asian and Indian mariners, they borrowed the lateen sail, a triangular sail that increased a ship’s mobility. They established multiple branches that honored letters of credit known as Sakk drawn on the parent bank. Trade benefited also from techniques of business organization. As a result of improved transportation, expanded banking services, and refined techniques of business organization, long-distance trade surged in the early Islamic world. They brought many things such as silk and spices form far away. The Changing Status of Women: There was a patriarchal society even before Muhammad’s time. However, Arab women enjoyed right that women in other parts could never dream of. For instance, they could legally inherit property, divorce husbands, and engage in business ventures. However, in some respects the Quran enhanced the security of women in Arabian society. It portrayed women equal to men in the eyes of Allah. However, the Quran and later the Sharia reinforced male dominance. They recognized descend trough the male line. Even though they teach that women should be treated with delicacy and respect, it allowed men to have up to four wives, whereas women could only have one husband. The veiling of women was not originally a tradition of the Muslims. This tradition came from the Byzantine and Sasanid Empires. At the beginning women had many rights stated in the Quran, however as time passed, the scholars modified the Quran and they took away the rights of women. Islamic Values and cultural Exchanges: The Quran has served as the cornerstone of the Islamic society. The Quran established a flexible and powerful medium of communication. Even today the Muslims believe that the Quran is the only reliable scripture, translations as not as powerful as the original one. Muslims missionaries spread Goad’s message, but they allowed the people to still practice their old religions or beliefs. The foundation of an Islamic Cultural Tradition: The Muslims scholars studied the Quran and stories about Muhammad in order to create moral guidelines appropriate for their society. Formal institutions helped promote Islamic values. Many mosques maintained schools that provided elementary education and religious instruction, and wealthy Muslims sometimes established schools and provided endowments for their support. By the tenth century institutions of higher education known as Madrasas appeared. Muslim rulers supported the Madrasas because they had interest in recruiting literate and learned students with an advanced education in Islamic theology and law for administrative position. Sufis also appeared. Sufis were especially effective as missionaries because they emphasized devotion to Allah above mastery of doctrine. Islam and the Cultural Traditions of Persia and the Cultural Traditions of Persia, India, and Greece: As the Islamic community expanded, the people started interacting with people from other societies, especially with Persia, India, and Greece. Persian traditions quickly found a place in Islamic society, since the culturally rich land of Persia fell under Islamic rule. Persian Influence was as noticeable in literary works from the Abbasid dynasty. While Arabic served as the language of religion, theology, philosophy, and law, Persian was the principal language of literature, poetry, history, and political reflection. Chapter Summary (taken from AP textbook) The religion of Islam emerged on the Arabian Peninsula in the seventh century  C. E. as a result of the vision and the teachings of Muhammad. His message attracted a rapidly expanding circle of devout believers, known as Muslims. After Muhammad’s death, Arab conquerors spread the word of Islam throughout a vast territory extending from the Indus River to the Iberian Peninsula within one century. This rapid expansion of Islam contributed to the development of a massive trade and communication network in which goods and ideas spread freely. The realm of Islam became one of the most prosperous and cosmopolitan societies of the postclassical world. This new society was characterized by, strong commitment to the monotheistic belief system, resting on the Five Pillars of Islam, first articulated by Muhammad and later elaborated on by scholars and mystics. Also, the development of overland and maritime trade and communication routes that facilitated the spread of new crops, trade goods, and ideas, from improved techniques in agriculture to the writings of the classical Greek philosophers. Engagement with and sometimes adoption of various cultural traditions encountered by the far-flung realm and its trade contacts, helped the country. Hence elements of Persian, Indian, Christian, and Greek cultures found their place into Islamic society and thought. Muslims believe that God is  one and incomparable  and the  purpose of existence  is to love and serve God. Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through Abraham,  Moses  and  Jesus, whom they consider  prophets. They maintain that previous messages and revelations have been partially changed or corrupted  over time,  but consider the Qur’an to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God. Religious concepts and practices include the  five pillars of Islam, which are basic concepts and obligatory acts of  worship, and following  Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, providing guidance on multifarious topics from  banking  and  welfare, to  warfare  and the  environment. The Pillars of Islam are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers. The  Quran  presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the  shahadah  (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting during  Ramadan  and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The  Shia  and  Sunni  sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts. How to cite Chapter 14 Outline Ap World History., Essay examples

Crusoe Processors free essay sample

SEMINAR REPORT (SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY) ON [pic] SESSION 2009-2010 UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF Mrs. Nida Haseeb (Seminar Co-ordinator) [pic] SUBMITTED BY Vikas Kumar Mishra IV YEAR INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ROLL No. : 0600115059 INTEGRAL UNIVERSITY LUCKNOW Phone No. : 0522-2890812, 2890730, 3096117 Fax: 0522-2890809 Web: www. integraluniversity. ac. in CERTIFICATE This is to certify that VIKAS KUMAR MISHRA has completed necessary Seminar work prepared the bonafied report on CRUSOE -PROCESSOR in satisfactory manner as the partial fulfillment for the requirement of the degree of B. Tech (Information Technology) Of INTEGRAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW under the guidance of his faculty within his time limit and his full effort to make his Seminar good. Mr. M. M. Tripathi Mr. Rizwan Beg (Seminar Co-ordinator) (HOD CSE/IT) Mrs. Nida Haseeb (Seminar Co-ordinator) Miss. Nikhat Akhtar (Seminar Co-ordinator) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I take the opportunity to express my sincere thanks to Mrs. Nida Haseeb (Department Of CSE/IT) for her valuable advice and guidance for the success of this seminar. I also thank Dr. Rizwan Beg, HOD, (CSE/IT Dept). and all other staff of the department for their kind co-operation extended to me. Also I am extending my gratitude to everyone who helped me in the successful presentation of this seminar. I am thankful to all my friends who helped me in completing my seminar a successful one. I am also thankful to all the people who were directly or indirectly involved me in helping to complete my seminar report. Vikas Kumar Mishra Roll No. :0600115059 B. Tech ( Final Year ) Information Technology INDEX |SNO. | TOPIC |PAGE NO. | | | | | |1. |Introduction | 5 | |2. |Architecture |16 | |3. |Hierarchy model |20 | |4. |Instruction set |23 | |5. Performance |24 | |6. |Crusoe v/s Pentium die size |25 | |7. |Code morphing software |26 | |8. |Drawbacks |27 | |9. |Conclusion |28 | |10. Refrences |29 | 1. INTRODUCTION [pic] Mobile computing has been the buzzword for quite a long time. Mobile computing devices like laptops, webslates notebook PCs are becoming common nowadays. The heart of every PC whether a desktop or mobile PC is the microprocessor. Several microprocessors are available in the market for desktop PCs from companies like Intel, AMD, Cyrix etc. The mobile computing market has never had a microprocessor specifically designed for it. The microprocessors used in mobile PCs are optimized versions of the desktop PC microprocessor. Mobile computing makes very different demands on processors than desktop computing, yet up until now, mobile x86 platforms have simply made do with the same old processors originally designed for desktops. Those processors consume lots of power, and they get very hot. When youre on the go, a power-hungry processor means you have to pay a price: run out of power before youve finished, run more slowly and lose application performance, or run through the airport with pounds of extra batteries. A hot processor also needs fans to cool it; making the resulting mobile computer bigger, clunkier and noisier. A newly designed microprocessor with low power consumption will still be rejected by the market if the performance is poor. So any attempt in this regard must have a proper performance-power balance to ensure commercial success. A newly designed microprocessor must be fully x86 compatible that is they should run x86 applications just like conventional x86 microprocessors since most of the presently available softwares have been designed to work on x86 platform. Crusoe is the new microprocessor which has been designed specially for the mobile computing market. It has been designed after considering the above mentioned constraints. This microprocessor was developed by a small Silicon Valley startup company called Transmeta Corp. after five years of secret toil at an expenditure of $100 million. The concept of Crusoe is well understood from the simple sketch of the processor architecture, called amoeba. In this concept, the x86-architecture is an ill-defined amoeba containing features like segmentation, ASCII arithmetic, variable-length instructions etc. The amoeba explained how a traditional microprocessor was, in their design, to be divided up into hardware and software. Thus Crusoe was conceptualized as a hybrid microprocessor that is it has a software part and a hardware part with the software layer surrounding the hardware unit. The role of software is to act as an emulator to translate x86 binaries into native code at run time. Crusoe is a 128-bit microprocessor fabricated using the CMOS process. The chips design is based on a technique called VLIW to ensure design simplicity and high performance. Besides this it also uses Transmetas two patented technologies, namely, Code Morphing Software and Longrun Power Management. It is a highly integrated processor available in different versions for different market segments. In electronics, Crusoe is a family of microprocessors from Transmeta. They use a VLIW hardware core, upon which runs a software abstraction layer, or virtual machine, known as the Code Morphing Software (CMS). The CMS translates machine code instructions received from programs running on the chip into native instructions for the core. In this way, the chips can emulate the instruction set of other computer architectures. Currently, this is used to allow the chips to emulate the Intel x86 instruction set. In theory, it is possible for the CMS to be modified to handle other instruction streams (i. e. to emulate other microprocessors). The addition of an abstraction layer between the x86 instruction stream and the hardware means that the hardware architecture can change without breaking compatibility, just by modifying the CMS. For example Efficeon, the second-generation Crusoe, has a 256-bit-wide VLIW core versus 128-bit in the first generation. Crusoe performs in software some of the functionality traditionally implemented in hardware (e. g. instruction re-ordering), resulting in simpler hardware with fewer transistors. The relative simplicity of the hardware means that Crusoe consumes less power (and therefore generates less heat) than other x86-compatible microprocessors running at the same frequency. The name is taken from the novel Robinson Crusoe. Transmeta (NASDAQ: TMTA) is a company that develops computing technologies with a focus on reducing power consumption in electronic devices. It was founded in 1995 by Bob Cmelik, Dave Ditzel [1], Colin Hunter, Ed Kelly, Doug Laird, Malcolm Wing, and Greg Zyner as a US-based corporation that designed very long instruction word code morphing (Microcoded) microprocessors. So far, it has produced two x86-compatible CPU architectures: Crusoe and Efficeon. These CPUs have appeared in ultra-portable laptops, blade servers, tablet PCs, a personal cluster computer, and a silent desktop, where low power consumption and heat dissipation are of primary importance. HistoryThroughout Transmetas first few years, little was known about exactly what it would be offering. Its web site went online in mid-1997, and for approximately two and a half years displayed nothing but the text This web page is not yet here. Information gradually came out of the company, suggesting of a very long instruction word-based (VLIW) design that translated x86 code into its own native code. As Intels then-forthcoming Merced processor was also a VLIW design which could translate x86 code, speculation arose suggesting that Transmetas product could have supercomputer-level processing power while actually being cheaper to manufacture than any offering by Intel, AMD or Cyrix. In fact, Transmeta marketed their microprocessor technology as extraordinarily innovative and revolutionary in the low-power market segment. They had hoped to be both power and performance leaders in the x86 space. But initial reviews of the Crusoe indicated the performance fell significantly short of projections. [2] Also, during Crusoe development Intel and AMD significantly ramped up speeds and began to address increasing concerns about power consumption. So Crusoe was rapidly cornered into a low-volume, small form factor (SFF), low-power segment of the market. In response, Transmeta quickly re-designed its technology, and produced the Efficeon processor. The Efficeon claimed to have twice the performance of the original Crusoe CPU at the same frequency. But the performance was still weak relative to the competition, and the complexity of the chip had increased significantly. This greater size and power consumption may have diluted a key market advantage Transmetas chips had previously enjoyed over the competition. Transmeta has employed a number of industry luminaries such as Linus Torvalds and Dave D. Taylor. Initially, its purpose was kept secret, but partially because it had such talent amongst its staff, the industry was constantly abuzz with rumors in addition to conspiracy theories resulting in excellent press relations (PR). Torvalds left Transmeta in June 2003 to dedicate himself to the further development of the Linux kernel. As an example of technology media hype, the company was once named as the Most important company in Silicon Valley in an Upside magazine editorial. Less well reported was that the company was never profitable while it was a chip vendor. In 2002, it had a loss of $114 million dollars, in 2003 a loss of $88 million, in 2004 a loss of $107 million. As of January 2005 the company announced a strategic restructuring away from being a chip product company to an intellectual property company. That is, instead of selling chips, it will sell technology for use by other chip makers. In February 2005, there was wild speculation that AMD might buy Transmeta. In March 2005 Transmeta announced that it was laying off 68 people, leaving 208 employees. About half of the remaining employees were to work on propagating the LongRun2 power optimization technology within Sony products. Sony was reported to be a key licensee of this Transmeta technology. TimelineFounded in 1995. Corporate launch on January 19, 2000. [3] On November 13, 2000, Transmeta announces their initial public offering at $21/share. Stock skyrocketed to $46/share making it the last of the great high tech IPOs of the bubble not surpassed by a high tech company again until Googles IPO in 2004. In July of 2002, Transmeta experience first set of layoffs equaling 40% of the company. [4] On May 31, 2005, Transmeta announced the signing of asset purchase and license agreements with Hong Kongs Culture. om Technology Limited led by Chu Bong-Foo, the inventor of the Cangjie method and one of the founding fathers of modern Chinese computing. However, due to delays in obtaining the necessary technology export licenses from the US Department of Commerce, the parties announced the termination of this agreement on February 9, 2006. On August 10 2005, Transmeta announced its first ever profitable quarter. On M arch 20 2006, GameSpot reported that Transmeta is working on an unnamed Microsoft project, probably the Origami. [1] On October 11 2006, Transmeta announced that it had filed a lawsuit against Intel Corporation for the infringement on ten of Transmetas US patents. The lawsuit, filed with the US District Court of Delaware, requested an injuction against Intels continuing sales of infringing products and also requested monetary compensation for damages. On February 7 2007, Transmeta closed its engineering services departments and terminated 75 employees. The company announced that it would no longer develop and sell hardware, but would focus on the development and licensing of intellectual property. [5] On July 6 2007, AMD invested $7. 5 million in Transmeta. AMD plans to use Transmetas patent portfolio related to energy-efficient technologies. [6] Origins as a stealth startup The company began as a stealth startup. Transmeta attempted to staff the company in secret, although speculation online was not uncommon [7]. One source of speculation was the companys bare-bones webpage. On November 12, 1999, a cryptic comment in the HTML appeared [8]: Yes, there is a secret message, and this is it: Transmetas policy has been to remain silent about its plans until it had something to demonstrate to the world. On January 19th, 2000, Transmeta is going to announce and demonstrate what Crusoe processors can do. Simultaneously, all of the details will go up on this Web site for everyone on the Internet to see. Crusoe will be cool hardware and software for mobile applications. Crusoe will be unconventional, which is why we wanted to let you know in advance to come look at the entire Web site in January, so that you can get the full story and have access to all of the real details as soon as they are available. The company was largely successful in hiding its ambitions until the official announcement. Over 2000 non-disclosure agreements (NDAs) were signed during the stealth period [9]. Lawsuit against Intel Corporation On October 11, 2006, Transmeta announced that they have filed a lawsuit against Intel Corporation for infringement of ten Transmeta U. S. patents covering computer architecture and power efficiency technologies. The complaint charges that Intel has infringed and is infringing Transmetas patents by making and selling a variety of microprocessor products including at least Intels Pentium III, Pentium 4, Pentium M, Core and Core 2 product line. TechnologyThe actual Transmeta processors are in-order very long instruction word (VLIW) cores. To execute x86 code, a pure software-based instruction translator dynamically compiles or emulates x86 code sequences, using execution-hotspot guided heuristics. While similar technologies existed (WABI for Sun, FX! 32 for Alpha and IA-32 EL for Itanium) in the 1990s, the Transmeta approach has set a much higher bar for compatibility—able to execute all x86 instructions from initial boot up to the latest multimedia instructions—while retaining most of its core performance. Transmeta claims several technical benefits to this approach: As the market leaders Intel and/or AMD would extend the core x86 instruction set, Transmeta could quickly upgrade their product with a software upgrade rather than requiring a respin of their hardware. Performance and power can be tuned in software to meet market needs It would be relatively simple to fix hardware design or manufacturing flaws in the hardware using software workarounds. More time could be spent concentrating on enhancing the capabilities of the core or reducing its power consumption without worrying about 16 years of backward compatibility to the x86 architecture. The processor could emulate multiple other architectures, possibly even at the same time. (At its initial Crusoe launch, Transmeta demonstrated pico-Java and x86 running intermixed on the native hardware. ) Prior to Crusoe release, rumors indicated Transmeta was relying on these benefits to develop a hybrid PowerPC and x86 processor. But Transmeta would initially concentrate solely on the extremely low-power x86 market. The ability to quickly update products without a hardware respin was demonstrated in 2002 with an in-the-field upgrade (a download) to enhance CPU performance of the Crusoe based HP Compaq TC1000 tablet PC. It was used again in 2004 when NX bit and SSE3 support were added to the Efficeon product line without requiring hardware changes. In the field upgrades were rare in practice due to system hardware vendors not wanting to incur additional customer support costs or spend additional money on QA for the potential upgrades or bug fixes to shipped products they had already closed the revenue books on. Viability Transmeta lost much credibility and endured significant criticism due to the poor initial Crusoe showing with large discrepancies between projections and actuals for both performance and power. Although power consumption was somewhat better than Intel and AMD offerings, the end user experience (i. e. battery life) only showed a marginal overall improvement. [2] First, the Code Morphing Software (CMS) combined with cache architecture artificially inflated comparisons between benchmarks and real-world applications. This is due to the repetitive nature of benchmarks and their small footprints. The CMS software overhead may have actually been a key cause of much lower performance for many real-world applications; the simple VLIW core architecture could not compete on computationally-intensive applications; and the southbridge interface was limited by its low bandwidth for graphics or other I/O-intensive applications. Some standard benchmarks even failed to run, questioning the claim of full x86 compatibility. [3] The Efficeon processor addressed many of Crusoes shortcomings and showed roughly a 2x real-world improvement over Crusoe. Its die was considerably smaller than Pentium 4 and Pentium M, when compared in the same process technology. Efficeons die fabricated in 90 nm is 68 mm? , which is 60% of the Pentium 4 in 90 nm, at 112 mm? , with both processors possessing a 1 MB L2 cache. The notion of selling a product into a specific thermal envelope was typically not understood by the mass of reviewers, who tended to compare Efficeon to the gamut of x86 microprocessors, regardless of power consumption or application. One such example of this criticism suggests the performance still significantly lagged Intels Pentium M (Banias) and AMDs Mobile Athlon XP. 4] For the 7 to 12 Watt thermal envelope in which Efficeon was designed to compete, there are unsubstantiated claims that its frequency far exceeded anything else in the market, at 1. 5 GHz and 7 W, while the Centrino at the time could only operate within the 7 W envelope when its frequency was reduced to 1. 1 GHz. This claim also admittedly considers only CPU fr equency and ignores other significant factors in overall performance, such as core cycles per instruction (CPI), or memory performance and bandwidth, which have varying impact on different benchmarks and system configurations. Unfortunately for Transmeta, other components within a laptop computer also consume power, such as the LCD display and hard disk drive. Since laptops with Transmeta CPUs share these components with regular laptops, the net increase in battery life was not large enough to make much difference to customers. TriviaOn the show 24, the fictional character Tony Almeida is listed as a former systems validation analyst at Transmeta. Very Long Instruction Word or VLIW refers to a CPU architecture designed to take advantage of instruction level parallelism (ILP). A processor that executes every instruction one after the other (i. . a non-pipelined scalar architecture) may use processor resources inefficiently, potentially leading to poor performance. The performance can be improved by executing different sub-steps of sequential instructions simultaneously (this is pipelining), or even executing multiple instructions entirely simultaneously as in superscalar architectures. Further improvement c an be achieved by executing instructions in an order different from the order they appear in the program; this is called out-of-order execution. These three techniques all come at a cost: increased hardware complexity. Before executing any operations in parallel, the processor must verify that the instructions do not have interdependencies. There are many types of interdependencies, but a simple example would be a program in which the first instructions result is used as an input for the second instruction. They clearly cannot execute at the same time, and the second instruction cant be executed before the first. Modern out-of-order processors use significant resources in order to take advantage of these techniques, since the scheduling of instructions must be determined dynamically as a program executes based on dependencies. The VLIW approach, on the other hand, executes operation in parallel based on a fixed schedule determined when programs are compiled. Since determining the order of execution of operations (including which operations can execute simultaneously) is handled by the compiler, the processor does not need the scheduling hardware that the three techniques described above require. As a result, VLIW CPUs offer significant computational power with less hardware complexity (but greater compiler complexity) than is associated with most superscalar CPUs. The Efficeon processor is Transmetas second-generation 256-bit VLIW design which employs a software engine to convert code written for x86 processors to the native instruction set of the chip (Code Morphing Software, aka CMS). Like its predecessor, the Transmeta Crusoe (a 128-bit VLIW architecture), Efficeon stresses computational efficiency, low power consumption, and a low thermal footprint. Efficeon most closely mirrors the feature set of Intel Pentium 4 processors, although, like AMD Opteron processors, it supports a fully integrated memory controller, a HyperTransport IO bus, and the NX bit, or no-execute x86 extension to PAE mode. NX bit support is available starting with CMS version 6. 0. 4. Efficeons computational performance relative to mobile CPUs like the Intel Pentium M is thought to be lower, although little appears to be published about the relative performance of these competing processors. Efficeon comes in two package types: a 783 and a 592 ball grid array. Its power consumption is moderate (with some consuming as little as 3 watts at 1 GHz and 7 watts at 1. 5 GHz), so it can be passively cooled. Two generations of this chip were produced. The first generation (TM8600) was manufactured using a TSMC 0. 13 micrometre process and productized at speeds up to 1. GHz. The second generation (TM8800 and TM8820) was manufactured using a Fujitsu 90 nm process and productized at speeds ranging from 1 GHz to 1. 7 GHz). Internally, the Efficeon has 2 arithmetic logic units, 2 load/store/add units, 2 execute units, 2 floating-point/MMX/SSE/SSE2 units, one branch prediction unit, one alias unit, and one control u nit. This VLIW Processor can execute a 256-VLIW word per cycle, which is called a molecule and therefore has room and capability to execute 8 32-bit commands (called atoms) per cycle. The Efficeon has 128 k instruction + 64 k data level 1 cache and a 1Mb level 2 cache on the chip. Additionally the Efficeon CMS (code morphing software) reserves a small portion of main memory (typically 32Mb) for its translation cache of dynamically translated x86 instructions. †¢ Compact 474-pin ceramic BGA package is fully pin-compatible with existing TM5400 and TM5600 models. The Transmeta Crusoe processor is an ultra-low power, high-speed microprocessor based on an advanced VLIW core architecture. When used in conjunction with Transmeta’s x86 Code Morphing software, the Crusoe processor provides x86-compatible software execution using dynamic binary code translation, without requiring code recompilation. In addition to the VLIW core, the processor incorporates separate 64K-byte instruction and data caches, a large 512K-byte L2 write-back cache, 64-bit DDR SDRAM memory controller, 64-bit SDR SDRAM memory controller, and 32-bit PCI controller. These additional functional units, which are typically part of the core system logic that surrounds the microprocessor, allow the Crusoe processor to provide a highly integrated and cost effective platform solution for the x86 mobile. market. The processor core operates from a 0. 9-1. V supply, resulting in extremely low power consumption, even at high operating frequencies. With power consumption during typical operation as low as 150 milliwatts. 2. ARCHITECTURE [pic] The Crusoe processor incorporates integer and floating point execution units, separate instruction and data caches, a level-2 write-back cache, memory management unit, and multimedia instructions. In addition to these traditional processor features, the device integrates a DDR SDRA M memory controller, SDR SDRAM memory controller, PCI bus controller and serial ROM interface controller. These additional units are usually part of the core system logic that surrounds the microprocessor. The VLIW processor, in combination with Code Morphing software and the additional system core logic units, allow the Crusoe processor to provide a highly integrated, ultra-low power, high performance platform solution for the x86 mobile market. The Crusoe processor block diagram is shown in Figure 1. FIGURE 1 Crusoe Processor Block Diagram Model TM5800 CPU Core Integer unit Floating point unit MMU L1 Instruction Cache L1 Data Cache 4K 8-way set associative 64K 16-way set associative Unified TLB 256 entries 4-way set associative DDR SDRAM Controller SDR SDRAM Controller PCI Controller Southbridge Interface DMA Multimedia Instructions 64 64 Serial ROM Interface L2 WB Cache 512K 4-way set associative Bus Interface Model TM5800 Product Brief Crusoe Processor 7/5/2001 3 of 8 2. 0 Processor Core The Crusoe processor core architecture is relatively simple by conventional standards. It is ba sed on a Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW) 128-bit instruction set. Within this VLIW architecture, the control logic of the processor is kept very simple and software is used to control the scheduling of instructions. This allows a simplified and very straightforward hardware implementation with an in-order 7-stage integer pipeline and a 10-stage floating point pipeline. By streamlining the processor hardware and reducing the control logic transistor count, the performance-to-power consumption ratio can be greatly improved over traditional x86 architectures. The Crusoe processor includes a 64K-byte 8-way set-associative Level 1 (L1) instruction cache, and a 64K-byte 16-way set associative L1 data cache. The TM5800 model also includes an integrated 512K-byte Level 2 (L2) write-back cache for improved effective memory bandwidth and enhanced performance. This cache architecture assures maximum internal memory bandwidth for performance intensive mobile applications, while maintaining the same low-power implementation that provides a superior performance-to-power consumption ratio relative to previous x86 implementations. Other than having execution hardware for logical, arithmetic, shift, and floating point instructions, as in conventional processors, the Crusoe processor has very distinctive features from traditional x86 designs. To ease the translation process from x86 to the core VLIW instruction set, the hardware generates the same condition codes as conventional x86 processors and operates on the same 80-bit floating point numbers. Also, the Translation Look-aside Buffer (TLB) has the same protection bits and address mapping as x86 processors. The software component of this solution is used to emulate all other features of the x86 architecture. The software that converts x86 programs into the core VLIW instructions is called Code Morphing software. The combination of Code Morphing software and the VLIW core together act as an x86-compatible solution. 3. HIERARCHY MODEL [pic] . Crusoe Processor Software Hierarchy VLIW Processor Code Morphing Software x86 Operating System (Windows ME, Windows 2000, Linux, etc. ) x86 BIOS x86 Applications x86 Compatible Crusoe Processor Solution x86 Software pic] 4. INSTRUCTION SET [pic] 5. PERFORMANCE [pic] 6. Crusoe vs. Pentium Die Size Mobile PII Mobile PII Mobile PIII TM3120 TM5400 Process . 25m . 25m shrink . 18m . 22m . 18m On-chip L1 Cache 32KB 32KB 32KB 96KB 128KB On-chip L2 Cache 0 256KB 256KB 0 256KB Die Size 130mm2 180mm2 106mm2 77mm2 73mm2 [pic] 8. Some drawbacks: 1. Code optimization does not start until a block of code has been executed more the a few times. 2. Cod e translation requires clock cycles which could otherwise be used in performing application computation. . Conclusion 1. Transmeta has build an X-86 processor based on VLIW(very long instruction word) technology. 2. Code Morphing offers a new approach to the implementation of an instruction set architecture. 3. Crusoe offers the power of a high performance Intel processor consuming a fraction of power . 10. REFERENCES http://www. wikipedia. org/ http://www. google. co. in/ http://www. esnips. com/ http://www. scribd. com/ www. transmeta. com www. efficeon. org www. crusoeseries. in